Ebook: Geotechnical Engineering in the XXI Century: Lessons learned and future challenges
The first Pan-American Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (PCSMGE) was held in Mexico in 1959. Every 4 years since then, PCSMGE has brought together the geotechnical engineering community from all over the world to discuss the problems, solutions and future challenges facing this engineering sector. Sixty years after the first conference, the 2019 edition returns to Mexico.
This book, Geotechnical Engineering in the XXI Century: Lessons learned and future challenges, presents the proceedings of the XVI Pan-American Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (XVI PCSMGE), held in Cancun, Mexico, from 17 – 20 November 2019. Of the 393 full papers submitted, 335 were accepted for publication after peer review. They are included here organized into 19 technical sessions, and cover a wide range of themes related to geotechnical engineering in the 21st century. Topics covered include: laboratory and in-situ testing; analytical and physical modeling in geotechnics; numerical modeling in geotechnics; unsaturated soils; soft soils; foundations and retaining structures; excavations and tunnels; offshore geotechnics; transportation in geotechnics; natural hazards; embankments and tailings dams; soils dynamics and earthquake engineering; ground improvement; sustainability and geo-environment; preservation of historic sites; forensics engineering; rock mechanics; education; and energy geotechnics.
Providing a state-of-the-art overview of research into innovative and challenging applications in the field, the book will be of interest to all those working in soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering.
In this proceedings, 58% of the contributions are in English, and 42% of the contributions are in Spanish or Portuguese.
The first Pan-American Conference on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (PCSMGE) was held in Mexico in 1959. After that, this conference was held every four years in different countries in the Americas: Brazil (1963), Venezuela (1967), Puerto Rico (1971), Argentina (1975), Peru (1979), Canada (1983), Colombia (1987), Chile (1991), Mexico (1995), Brazil (1999), the USA (2003), Venezuela (2007), Canada (2011) and Argentina (2015). In 2019, sixty years later, this conference returned to our country.
The XVI PCSMGE 2019 has been organized recognizing the importance of disseminating knowledge, lessons learned and promoting research in innovative and challenging applications in the field of Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering. This conference brings together the geotechnical engineering community from all over the Americas and the rest of the world, in order to establish the problems, solutions and future challenges facing this engineering sector. The XVI PCSMGE 2019 was held from November 17 to 20, 2019 in Cancun, Mexico. The conference has been organized under the auspices of the Mexican Society of Geotechnical Engineering and fully recognized by the International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, and the Deep Foundations Institute and the Geo-Institute of ASCE as cooperative societies.
Researchers, geo-professionals, practitioners and students working on Geotechnical Engineering topics submitted three hundred ninety three (393) full papers to the XVI PCSMGE 2019, which were peer-reviewed by prominent reviewers from all over the world. After peer-review, three hundred and thirty five (335) full papers were accepted for publication.
These proceedings collect the full papers accepted for publication organized into nineteen technical sessions accompanying the papers from the workshops of the ISSMGE Technical Committees participating in the XVI PCSMGE 2019. The papers cover a wide range of themes of Geotechnical Engineering in the XXI Century, focused on lessons learned and future challenges, including Laboratory and in situ testing, Analytical and physical modelling in Geotechnics, Numerical modelling in Geotechnics, Unsaturated soils, Soft soils, Foundations and retaining structures, Excavations and tunnels, Offshore Geotechnics, Transportation in Geotechnics, Natural hazards, Embankments and tailings dams, Soils dynamics and earthquake engineering, Ground improvement, Sustainability and geoenvironment, Preservation of historic sites, Forensics engineering, Rock mechanics, Education, and Energy Geotechnics.
Without a doubt, the lessons learned, results and most recent advances included in the papers of these proceedings will constitute an essential reference in the solution of geotechnical problems and will promote communication and strengthen the unity among academia, geo-industry, government, business and non-governmental organizations that are instrumental for geotechnical engineers in the Americas and the rest of the world.
We would like to express our thanks to all the authors for their exceptional contributions submitted to the Conference, to all the reviewers who devoted time and effort to do the peer-review and all the Technical Session Co-Chairs for their support to the XVI PCSMGE 2019. We are especially grateful to Eduardo Martínez, Alejandra Liliana Espinosa and José Alfredo Promotor for their assistance with the preparation of these proceedings.
Norma Patricia López Acosta, Chairwoman, Editorial Committee
Alexandra Ossa López, Chairwoman, Technical Committee
Walter I. Paniagua Zavala, Chairman, Organizing Committee
Cancun, Mexico, November 17 to 20, 2019
La construcción y operación simultánea de los depósitos de jales provoca la variación de los parámetros más importantes de este tipo de suelos, por ejemplo el coeficiente de permeabilidad. El objetivo de este artículo es describir la metodología aplicada para la determinación del coeficiente de permeabilidad de un material proveniente de un depósito de jales (residuos sólidos mineros). Se utilizó un permeámetro de carga constante y pared flexible, instrumentado para medir la condición de esfuerzos de consolidación y el gasto hidráulico en probetas reconstituidas (por el método de compactación por amasado) de 101 mm de diámetro por 50 mm de altura, Se ensayaron probetas en estado suelto y denso, se circuló agua a través de la muestra para expulsar el aire atrapado en la estructura de la muestra. Las muestras se saturaron por contrapresión y se consolidaron a diferentes esfuerzos efectivos. Bajo estas condiciones de esfuerzo se determinó el coeficiente de permeabilidad. Se hace un análisis de la variación de la permeabilidad con la compacidad relativa inicial y los diferentes esfuerzos de consolidación aplicados.
La consolidación rápida con la célula Rowe fue desarrollada para aplicar un aumento de la carga a una velocidad constante de deformación (CRS), siendo una alternativa para el edómetro con carga incremental (IL), lo que reduce considerablemente el tiempo de ejecución del ensayo de consolidación para determinar los parámetros de esfuerzo-deformación de suelos arcillosos cohesivos. En este estudio se analiza el comportamiento de la curva de consolidación de laboratorio, coeficiente de consolidación “cv”, el coeficiente de compresión “cc”, de muestras alteradas e inalteradas a diferentes velocidades de deformación bajo las recomendaciones de la norma ASTM D4186. De los resultados se ha observado una gran similitud tanto en la curva de laboratorio y en los parámetros de consolidación en arcillas con una característica de baja plasticidad de la ciudad de Cochabamba, aplicando las teorías propuestas por Wissa et al y K. Lee, y más aún si el parámetro β es inferior a 0,1 aplicando velocidades bajas.
O presente artigo resulta da caracterização geotécnica do subsolo da área urbana da cidade de Frederico Westphalen/RS/Brasil, com área de aproximadamente 5,7 km2, fundamentada em conceitos da geoestatística. A metodologia consistiu em mapeamentos realizados com o software de geoprocessamento Quantum Gis (QGIS), com base na estimativa de valores de NSPT para diferentes profundidades de análise, a partir de resultados de sondagens de simples reconhecimento executados na localidade. De modo geral, os mapas evidenciaram que as regiões norte, sul e leste do município apresentam solos mais resistentes, enquanto que na região oeste o subsolo apresenta uma resistência intermediária. O território central contemplou a zona com solos menos resistentes. Verificou-se ainda que a área analisada possui uma maior variabilidade de resistência nas cotas iniciais e que o impenetrável geralmente se encontra entre as cotas -5 m e -9 m abaixo da superfície.
Los campos experimentales dedicados al estudio de sistemas de fundación profundos posibilitan evaluar el comportamiento del suelo sobre la aplicación de cargas. Para lograr entender la interacción entre el suelo y el material del elemento estructural, es importante caracterizar el perfil geotécnico, definiendo la resistencia mecánica y las propiedades especificas (clasificación, forma y mineralogía de los granos) a lo largo de la profundidad de interés. El presente trabajo involucra la interpretación de ensayos de laboratorio efectuados en muestras del perfil geotécnico del campo experimental de la Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), con el objetivo de estudiar el mecanismo de transferencia de carga en pilotes pre-excavados en suelos arenosos. El análisis de los resultados obtenidos permitió definir las características del suelo, el cual principalmente está compuesto por arenas finas con lentes de arcilla y limo, con mineralogía constituida predominantemente por cuarzo y forma angular de las partículas. El ángulo de fricción de la arena para el estado critico es 33° y el ángulo de fricción de pico drenado es 33.4°, obtenidos a través de ensayos triaxiales realizados a diferentes profundidades.
This paper focuses on the effect of shear modulus on maximum allowable pressures of drilling fluid applied to maintain the stability of a borehole in Horizontal Directional Drilling (HDD). HDD is one of the widely used trenchless methods to install and replace underground pipelines and utility conduits. Despite the popularity and success, borehole instability caused by tensile is still considered as a major challenge in drilling. While there are analytical and numerical models used to design the maximum allowable drilling fluid pressures based on soil profile, the uncertainty in selection of the representative values of soil properties including shear modulus can have an impact on the predicted drilling fluid pressure. Data from field experiments on drilling fluid pressures was used to validate the existing analytical models and the effect of shear modulus is presented. Results indicates that maximum pressures of drilling fluid increase with increasing shear modulus, however this increase depends on the assumption of the radius of plastic zone, which is closely related with the borehole diameter. The results from this study can significantly help in reducing the risks associated with borehole instability, thus lowering the drilling time and cost.
To correctly analyze debris flow events a rheological approach is necessary, through constitutive modelling the descendent moving mass. Bingham’s model is widely employed in the debris flow literature, its input parameters being plastic viscosity and yield stress. Such rheological approach is important in the evaluation of the propagation of the downhill motion, not only by determining its velocity, but also to aid the delimitation of areas to be affected by such catastrophic type of movement. The present study presents a proposal for the assessment of soil viscosity by laboratory testing on a modified set-up of the well-known slump test. Through the definition of shearing rates in the slump tests, viscosity is determined on a plate–plate rotational rheometer. It was studied one natural soil from Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Correlations were obtained concerning to soil moisture and shear rates, defined in the slump tests, and also between shear rate and plastic viscosity, the latter defined in the rheometer tests. As a result, good relationships between water content and viscosity were established. Comparing the obtained data with other results available in the literature it is concluded that the developed experimental methodology may provide a simple way to evaluate soils viscosity for debris flow analysis.
Laboratory tests are performed to simulate, in the best way, the observed field conditions. These conditions assist in the choice of the test to be performed for the determination of the relevant geotechnical parameters. Among the tests used in Geotechnical Engineering, simple shear stands out. This test is known and used to measure shear strength and soil stiffness. Further, it is the only laboratory test capable of imposing on a sample plane strain conditions under constant volume and allowing rotation of principal stresses. A few of the most common applications of the simple shear testing are the vertical shear wave propagation through a soil column, the mode of shearing to a pile shaft and under an offshore gravity base platform. In this context, simple shear apparatus was developed with the purpose of analyzing the behavior of materials under such loading conditions. The study was conducted in a fine uniform sand from the city of Osorio, Brazil. The Osorio sand showed a behavior typical of medium dense sands with stress envelope with the angle of 35°. Results presented a peak of shear stress followed by reduction of resistance. Furthermore, the three initial effective stress carried on this research showed a normalized behavior during shear strain. The cyclic tests presented the same stress envelope as the monotonic test, reaching also the angle of 35°. As expected, a stiffness degradation for a wide range of shear strain was observed.
This paper describes a servo-assisted and computer-controlled variable energy super heavy penetrometer (DPSH) for dynamic cone testing denominated Grizzly-EV®. The equipment controls and adjusts the hammer driving energy as required depending on the penetration of the probe into to ground to maintain a relatively constant energy/settlement ratio throughout the test. Results of in-situ tests conducted at four different sites in France and Spain are used to assess the repeatability, sensitivity and reliability of the equipment. Comparisons to results of cone penetration tests (CPT) are also presented and discussed.
The study of anisotropic behavior of soils has been widely addressed in various investigations. Results of the analysis of the mechanical behavior of soils have shown a different response depending on the anisotropy inherent in the formation of the direction of the stress application. The existence of specific laboratory apparatus for the evaluation of anisotropy such as the true triaxial or hollow cylinder have allowed significant advances in the development of models to predict the behavior of soils. In this research the anisotropy of clayey silt soils of the City of Torreón Coahuila it is evaluated, and its hydro-mechanical behavior is studied using conventional triaxial equipment and oedometer device in undisturbed samples varying the direction of soil extraction (0°, 45° and 90°). Preliminary results show differences in the stress-strain response of soils depending on the direction of application of stresses.
The fully softened shear strength is an important engineering parameter for first-time slides in cuts in stiff clays, and in compacted clay embankments constructed using high plasticity clays. This paper presents a summary of the available guidelines to properly use this concept in slope stability analysis and to measure it in the laboratory. Updated correlations to obtain fully softened shear strength parameters using soil index properties are also presented.
El uso de transductores piezoeléctricos se ha vuelto común en la medición de las propiedades dinámicas a muy pequeñas deformaciones de diferentes tipos de materiales, debido en parte a la sencillez del ensayo, a su fácil adaptación en cualquier equipo convencional y al relativo bajo costo que implica. Varios investigadores han concentrado esfuerzos para desarrollar transductores eficientes, que permitan propagar ondas de corte y de compresión en la misma trayectoria; sin embargo, su fabricación se vuelve compleja e involucra el uso de dispositivos periféricos para generar estas ondas. El presente estudio muestra que un par de transductores adecuadamente configurado es capaz de emitir y recibir ondas de cortante y de compresión sin necesidad de una fabricación compleja ni de dispositivos periféricos adicionales, variando solamente la frecuencia de excitación. La sencillez en la fabricación y la eliminación de dispositivos adicionales en esta variante, simplifican la evaluación de las propiedades dinámicas en diferentes direcciones durante la etapa de consolidación en un consolidómetro no convencional, instrumentado con cristales piezoeléctricos. Estos resultados fueron satisfactoriamente comparados con resultados obtenidos utilizando elementos bender y discos para medir ondas de cortante y compresión respectivamente en muestras de procedencia similar.
La aplicación de vacío en suelos blandos es un sistema que, combinado con drenaje vertical utiliza la presión atmosférica para precargar y consolidar el suelo de manera acelerada. Para evaluar su efectividad en las arcillas blandas del Valle de México se construyó un terraplén de prueba de 70 x 70 m sometido a consolidación por vacío mediante el sistema dren a dren.
En los últimos 8 años se ha acelerado la construcción de edificios de apartamentos y de oficinas, de más de 50 m de altura en el centro de la provincia de San José, Costa Rica, debido al crecimiento de la población. En el centro y este de San José, se encuentran superficialmente suelos limo arenosos y limo arcillosos, con una capacidad soportante admisible de entre 50 kPa y 300 kPa, de 5 a 20 m de espesor. Por debajo de este estrato de suelo, se detecta el lahar, que es una mezcla de suelo y bloques de roca de tamaño centimétrico a decimétrico, y en algunos sectores bloques de más de un metro de diámetro. Este Lahar también es conocido como debris flow, y es apto para la fundación de estas estructuras de más de 50 m de altura. Los ensayos geotécnicos más comunes, tales como DMT, CPT y SPT inclusive, no logran determinar la capacidad soportante del lahar debido a que estos equipos no avanzan al encontrarse con un bloque de roca, sin embargo, utilizando ensayos presiométricos (PMT) se puede estimar la capacidad soportante de esta formación geológica, mediante la introducción de la probeta PMT por medio de sondeos a rotación. Con el uso del PMT, los ingenieros estructurales y desarrolladores pueden contar con datos precisos para estimar la capacidad soportante admisible del lahar, la cual varía entre 400 kPa y 1200 kPa, además de otros parámetros necesarios para el diseño de cimentaciones profundas o losas de fundación.
This paper presents a review on the effect of saturation and back pressure application and discusses the practical aspects of back pressure application. Previous studies suggested use of back pressure during saturation phase; however there is no clear guideline for the level of back pressure that is appropriate to use in triaxial testing. Some researchers even suggested that circulation of carbon dioxide (CO2) should be used to expedite the saturation process instead of using back pressure to enhance the degree of saturation of tested sands in liquefaction tests. Nonetheless, different levels of back pressure 100, 200, 300 and even higher are typically used in sample preparation to achieve better degree of saturation (higher levels of Skempton’s pore pressure coefficient). The level of saturation influences the cyclic behaviour and strength. Therefore, there is a need to assess the proper level of back pressure to simulate real field condition. Examples of testing results on non-cohesive soil are presented to demonstrate how the saturation and back pressure levels affect the behaviour of tested specimen. The importance of realistic representation of field conditions in laboratory testing is demonstrated through examples of soils that are buried under impounded water such as marine sands. In cases where marine sands are buried under high water depths, the level of impounded water can be modelled in triaxial testing by applying different levels of back pressure. Finally, suggestion for the level of back pressure to properly simulate field condition is presented.
Soil liquefaction is one of the major causes of damage due to earthquakes. Specifically in Chile, evidence of liquefaction has been observed on several sites along the country after the 2010 Mw 8.8 Maule earthquake. An ongoing research project involving the evaluation of liquefaction potential of different sites in the city of Concepción, has produced an extensive in-situ testing database. To contribute in the evaluation of liquefaction potential, a laboratory testing program is being performed through cyclic triaxial tests. The specimens tested consist of natural soils extracted at different sites from the city of Concepción. One of the objectives of this study is to evaluate the effects of non-inform cyclic loading on the threshold shear strain of natural soils. The results are compared with conventional methods to obtain the values of the cyclic shear strain amplitude. The evaluation of the dynamic properties of natural soil deposits potentially liquefiable are compared.
Los cristales piezoeléctricos son una herramienta muy útil para la estimación de la velocidad de onda cortante (Vs). Esta técnica se ha vuelto muy popular en los últimos años debido a la facilidad de instalación en varios equipos de laboratorio geotécnico. Las señales obtenidas a partir de este tipo de ensayos necesitan ser interpretadas adecuadamente con el fin de obtener valores de Vs que representen al material estudiado. Convencionalmente los filtros son utilizados en señales contaminadas con ruidos o como un mecanismo para extraer determinada información. En esta investigación se utilizó un análisis multi-resolución con una wavelet tipo Haar y un filtro tipo umbral para estimar el tiempo de arribo de la onda cortante de una manera clara y precisa. Las señales analizadas se obtuvieron en un consolidómetro de grandes deformaciones, instrumentado con elementos bender. La probeta ensayada proviene del Antiguo Lago de Texcoco y fue sometida a diferentes etapas de consolidación isótropa.
En las últimas décadas la estimación de la velocidad de onda cortante (Vs) en pruebas de laboratorio empleando cristales piezoeléctricos se ha vuelto muy común alrededor del mundo. Aunque muchas técnicas para la estimación del tiempo de arribo de la onda han sido propuestas, con cada una de ellas se puede encontrar un valor diferente de Vs. En los análisis en el dominio de la frecuencia utilizando las Transformadas de Fourier, se puede perder información valiosa al momento de transformar de dominio la información. Por esta razón como alternativa para el análisis ha surgido la Transformada Wavelet, que será empleada en este documento para interpretar los tiempos de arribo de ondas cortantes mediante un análisis multi resolución. Utilizando una wavelet madre tipo sombrero mexicano se descompuso la señal de llegada por medio de la Transformada Wavelet Continua con el fin de interpretar el arribo de la onda en un diagrama tiempo-escala-coeficientes como un pico relativo. Los resultados fueron muy satisfactorios al interpretar señales obtenidas en probetas de origen lacustre, incluso con señales contaminadas con ruido. De forma paralela fue llevado a cabo un ensayo en la columna resonante sobre una muestra gemela a fin de comparar las velocidades de onda cortante.
Los depósitos mineros son estructuras elaboradas con materiales no utilizables en ese momento por la industria minera. En este artículo se estudia la influencia de las fuerzas capilares, compacidad relativa y esfuerzo confinante iniciales en las propiedades de resistencia de relaves mineros no saturados ante cargas dinámicas. Mediante la técnica de apisonado fueron elaboradas probetas con relaves mineros y empleando un equipo de columna resonante se efectuaron pruebas mediante la técnica de barrido de frecuencia para determinar el módulo de resistencia al esfuerzo cortante (Gmáx) y el amortiguamiento estos materiales complementado esta información con pruebas efectuadas en una cámara triaxial cíclica. En estado seco se obtuvieron los valores de Gmáx más altos, disminuyendo conforme se incrementó el grado de saturación hasta un 16.6%, a partir de este punto las propiedades mecánicas no cambiaron significativamente aún con un incremento de la saturación. Se propone un modelo que relaciona la variación del Gmáx con respecto al grado de saturación, relación de vacíos y esfuerzo de confinamiento para los relaves no saturados estudiados.
En este documento se presentan una evaluación comparativa de las mediciones de módulos resiliente Mr , dinámico E y dinámico máximo Emáx en muestras de suelos provenientes del lago de Texcoco, las cuales se llevaron a cabo durante la ejecución de pruebas de triaxiales cíclicas en donde para todos los niveles de esfuerzo efectivo promedio se aplicaron diferentes patrones de cargas: haversiano con recesos para medir los valores de Mr y senoidal continuo para el medir los valores de Edin, y se realizaron mediciones de velocidades de ondas de cuerpo Vs y Vp para estimar los valores de Emáx a través de un sistema de medición con cristales piezoeléctricos. Los resultados indican que para los niveles de esfuerzos efectivos promedio y desviadores a los que fueron sometidas las muestras de suelos, los valores de E y Mr son muy similares y conservan una relación con Emáx de tal forma que los valores de E/Emax y Mr/Emax varían entre 1.25 y 2.0, dicha variación se atribuye a la diferencia de los métodos de evaluación de los parámetros dinámicos utilizada en la investigación y la cual ha sido documentada en trabajos realizados previamente por otros autores.
This paper presents an algorithm for soil profile generation using data from cone penetration tests CPTs based on Soil Behavior Type (SBT) charts. The algorithm handles the occurrence of thin layers by consolidating them within the stratigraphic profile according to certain rules. The algorithm also generates a more coherent profile by classifying the soil layers using intrinsic descriptors (which depend on properties of the soil layer) and state descriptors (which depend on the in-situ density of the soil layer). An example is presented comparing the soil profiles generated using the conventional SBT chart method and the proposed algorithm.
Residual soils are developed at inter-tropical latitudes where climate conditions favor the in-situ weathering of the intact rock. They are characterized by a porous structure with high void ratios that makes them susceptible to large deformations. Soil compressibility in residual deposits is usually evaluated based on conventional Incremental Loading (IL) consolidation tests which can take up to a week to be completed and yield very limited stress-strain data. This paper employs the results of Constant Rate of Strain (CRS) consolidation tests to evaluate the compressibility behavior of two residual soils derived from igneous-metamorphic basement located around the city of Medellin, Colombia. CRS testing significantly reduces testing time and provides continuous pore water pressure and load- deformation data leading to a better definition of the yielding stress of the material. Testing was performed on hand-trimmed specimens cut from high-quality block samples. For each site, one IL and three CRS tests at different strain rates were completed. It was found that CRS testing accelerates the definition of compressibility parameters with respect to conventional IL tests and yields very similar results to conventional oedometer tests. CRS testing can be used to study strain rate dependency in the definition of the yield stress of the tested residual soils. These values increased 22% for strain rates of 20%/hr with respect to average values estimated from IL testing.
It is well accepted that the small strain stiffness (0.001% – 0.01%) of most natural soils is anisotropic to a certain degree. Hence, elastic moduli Gh ≠ Gv and Eh ≠ Ev. It is also acknowledged that measuring the cross-anisotropic properties of soils is very difficult due to the complexity of determining the five independent parameters needed to describe a transversely isotropic soil. These parameters are the Poisson’s ratios (μvh and μhh) and the stiffness parameters (Gvh, Eh, Ev). Glacial clay tills, and glacial deposits in general, have a complex formation history. Generally, they are over-consolidated, stiff, have low sensitivity, are primarily incompressible, and have relatively low moisture content. Very little investigation of the small strain anisotropy of Canadian glacial clay soils has been conducted. This paper reports on a study of a series of tests conducted using a resonant column device and orthogonal Bender element pairs to examine the degrees of anisotropy of five different natural deposits located in Canada. Comparisons have been made wit the results of other studies on stiff overconsolidated clays found in the literature.