Recent events have shown that North Africa has become a hotbed of terrorist activity in recent years. This area cannot be ignored in the fight against terrorism because of the potential threat to NATO's southern flank.

This book presents the proceedings of the NATO Centre of Excellence – Defence against Terrorism (COE-DAT) Advanced Research Workshop entitled the “Terrorist Threat in North Africa from a NATO Perspective,” held in Ankara, Turkey, on 19–20 November 2013. The workshop brought together 21 participants from 10 countries and consisted of three sessions: The Changing Face of North African Terrorism, The Role of the State in North African Counterterrorism Efforts, and International Approaches to Countering Terrorism in the Maghreb/Sahel. During these sessions, presentations by ten expert speakers from five countries were followed by a detailed discussion and debate. The workshop concluded with a summary of all the topics reflected in the individual papers presented. Articles resulting from the workshop are presented in order of presentation.

The keynote address of the workshop was given by Professor Yonah Alexander of the Inter-University Center for Terrorism Studies on the topic of “Terrorism in North Africa and the Sahel: Threats and Responses.” In his article, he recaps recent studies on terrorism and then focuses on two particular issues in Africa – Ebola and the rise in terrorism incidents, and shows how this plays out in the countries of the region. In closing he addresses some long-term and short-term measures that should be taken to address the issue of terrorism in North Africa.

The second article discusses the talk on “The Changing Nature of North African Terrorism” by Professor Yahia H. Zoubir, where he discussed the changing aspects of the threat from Muslim groups in North Africa. He stresses differences between political Islam, which has been a historic force in North Africa, versus the rise of Salafi jihadism. Many of the most violent groups are splinter groups from the main groups. In his analysis, professor Zoubir cites the overthrow of the Shah of Iran and the return of figters from Afghanistan as major factors in the changing nature of the threat in the region.

In his article on “The Rise of al-Qaeda in North Africa: AQIM and its Role in the Region,” Mr. Gyula Gazdık of the Strategic Defense Research Institute in Budapest, discusses the ‘colorful’ history of AQIM – Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, dating back to the independence of Algeria. He believes the Maghreb region is critical as one of the key energy suppliers of Europe and America, and is very significant from the point of view of the Western Mediterranean security. AQIM emerged from the harsh legacy of Algeria's civil war of the 1990s and he characterizes AQIM of having had some success, but it also has not able to transform itself into a regional organization and this may prevent it from expanding into the regional force that it desires to be.

Mr. Jean-Charles Brisard addresses the financing of terrorism in the fourth article entitled “Financing Terrorism in North Africa,” where he discusses the financial resources and funding methods of the North African terrorist organizations. These organizations have been largely influenced by independence and a change from a centralized organization to a decentralized network of autonomous groups and cells. He discusses the trends in kidnapping foreigners for ransom, which has been particularly lucrative for them and has increased cooperation between organizations. One of the problems is that kidnapping for ransom is not specifically addressed in any of the terrorist conventions. In order to combat this phenomenon, the international community will need to work together collectively, as well as at the national level, to strengthen the prohibitions against such activity.

In the fifth article, “The Conflict in Northern Mali: Beyond Terrorism,” Helen Wilandh of the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute addresses ethnic tensions and intercommunal violence that erupted in light of the crisis in 2012. She shows how the resurgence in the north inflamed an increase in ethnic tensions, resulting in conflicts between local communities, ethnic groups and tribes. To her, any long-term solution must include genuine attempts to address the fundamental problems that have been feeding the conflict for many years, such as neglect by the central government. She also points out that external strategies should have an important role as an intermediary between the state and local communities to build (re)alliances.

The “Legal Framework of Military Operations against Terrorism in North Africa” is the title of the presentation and article by Larry D. White, who addresses the concept of the peacetime rules of counterterrorism in contrast to the wartime rules of counterterrorism. Although the peacetime rules will apply in most circumstances, counterterrorist forces need to understand both in order to be effective in all situations. The article focuses on the practical application of those rules as well as the pitfalls and changing landscape in this area.

Next, “Problems of State Inefficiency and Terrorism in North Africa,” by Professor Maria Bordas of the National School of Public Administration, Budapest, examines how state inefficiency in North Africa has led to an increase of terrorism in these countries. Through analysis of the aspects of state inefficiency that are typical as reasons for terrorism in North Africa, she looks at both general phenomena and state-specific ones. The main point of the article is that terrorism cannot be defeated by the military itself, but by a complex development of the state functions which are capable of eliminating the roots of terrorism.

Professor Abdel Mohsen Soliman Bakr of the National Research Center, Cairo writes on “The Relationship between International Terrorism and Terrorism in North Africa” in the eighth article. He starts off by showing how international terrorism has become the most serious threat to global peace, security and development, to undermine the most cherished values and fundamental principles of the 21st Century including development, democracy, human rights and freedom. He contends that because of weapons, human/drug trafficking and political unrest, North Africa has become a hot spot for terrorism so it is also a region of growing importance in global efforts to counter terrorism. He discusses how the main terrorist threat in this region arises from al-Qaeda and the inability of African states to control their territory and to protect potential targets from terrorist assaults.

Following that, Mr. Anthony J. Banks of the U.S. European Command writes on “An Indiscriminate Threat: Terrorist and Violent Extremist Organization Threat,” where Africa is becoming more and more of a concern on the counterterrorist front. The U.S. Africa Command (USAFRICOM) has been stood up to address the military issues associated with this continent, with counterterrorism foremost. The command has identified a number of trends that will affect the continent in the coming ten years and developed a plan consistent with U.S. national guidance to address these concerns and help Africa and African nations develop. The security landscape in North Africa is extremely complex and has to be considered in a broader context. The only effective response to a networked problem is a networked solution, comprised of partnerships focused on shared goals and desired outcomes.

The last article, “Assessing Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism in the Maghreb,” by Valentina Bartolucci of the University of Pisa, Italy, addresses how the worsening of socio-economic conditions in North Africa, as well as the political turmoil in the Middle East, have further fuelled the rise of political and radical terrorist movements in the Maghreb and neighboring areas. In doing so, she provides an overview of the threat and spread of terrorism in the Maghreb, assessing the counterterrorism approaches of Algeria, Morocco, and Tunisia. The analysis reveals that the actual security situation in the region is particularly volatile, but also that the cards of both an Islamist threat and the menace of terrorism have been at times overplayed by politicians and the media.

With our compliments, we present these articles as away to further the understanding of terrorism in North Africa with a view to assist with the development of counterterrorism to combat this threat.

János Tomolya, PhD

Colonel, Hungarian Army

Workshop Director

Larry D. White, J.D.

Major, U.S. Air Force (Retired)

Assistant Workshop Director