Ebook: Homeland Security Organization in Defence Against Terrorism

The Centre of Excellence – Defence against Terrorism (COE-DAT) hosted an Advanced Research Workshop entitled “Homeland Security Organization in Defence Against Terrorism” that was conducted in Ankara from 19-20 November 2009. The workshop consisted of five sessions, with at least two experts in their field presenting information pertinent to the session topic, followed by a debate period on that topic. A total of thirteen experts from eight countries helped the forty participants from thirteen countries discuss these issues in order to facilitate awareness in NATO and affiliated countries. The articles in this book reflect those presentations and discussions.

The first session dealt with “Current Threats to Homeland Security from Terrorism” and featured a presentation on “Terrorism Today and Tomorrow: An Analysis and Projection Study” by Mr. Ercan Çitioğlu, President, International Security and Strategic Researches Center of Bahçeşehir University in Istanbul. His presentation discussed the transformation of terrorism as an instrument of state security functions through proxy wars and asymmetric threats, with this phenomenon becoming a tactical choice rather than ideology or anarchic violence activities. The second presentation of this session was “Winning Back Religion: Countering the Misuse of Scripture,” by Professor Dr. Şaban Ali Düzgün of the Ankara University School of Divinity. He spoke on the use of scripture (religious writings) in different religions and cited the danger of the use of ‘out of context quotations,’ where some so-called devout members can easily distort the very meaning of the text and thus transform scripture into a source of uproar and chaos rather than a source of peace and serenity.

The second session dealt with the topic of “Homeland Security Organization” and consisted of three presentations, each on a different jurisdiction. The first, “Homeland Security in the United States: Lessons from the American Experience,” was presented by Christopher BELLAVITA from the Center for Homeland Defense and Security, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California. He discussed what it took to produce the United States homeland security enterprise and concluded that homeland security is the emergent consequence of a complex adaptive system that have implications for homeland security practitioners trying to develop a perspective. In the second presentation, Maya Sivagnanam of the British Embassy in Ankara informed the attendees of a program called “CONTEST II – The United Kingdom's Counter Terrorism Strategy.” CONTEST II is the strategy the United Kingdom drew up a for counterterrorism and extremism from both home and abroad; the strategy centers around four main work streams and aims to defeat the terrorist threat while ensuring that vulnerable communities or individuals feel included in society and do not radicalize towards violent extremism. Davide Casale of the University of Turin made the third presentation on the “Role of an International Organization in Homeland Security against Terrorism: The European Union.” In that presentation, Mr. Casale outlined the counterterrorism strategy that the EU has developed in recent years which is based on four key activities: prevent, protect, pursue and respond. As part of this strategy, the EU has created specialized EU agencies (Eurojust), redefined others (Europol), improved information exchange and judicial cooperation, and provided more effective legal tools for the fight against terrorism, such as a common European definition of terrorism and the European Arrest Warrant.

“Legal and Security Responses to Terrorism in Homeland Security” was the title of the third session where Dr. Dominika Švarc of the University of Leeds discussed “Law as a Homeland Security Tool in the Defense against Terrorism: The Universal Legal Framework for the Criminal Justice Response to Terrorism.” Her talk focused on how a strong criminal justice response, supported by the core principles of international law and human rights standards, remains the crucial tool in the global efforts to fight the scourge of terrorism. This presentation was followed by Professor Phillip Schertzing speaking on “Homeland Security Policing Against Terrorism: Tactics and Investigations” where he discussed what is often referred to as ‘high policing,’ which some have characterized as the new homeland security era and model of policing.

At the beginning for the second day of the workshop, Professor Paul Wilkinson of the Centre for the Study of Terrorism at Saint Andrews University in Scotland gave the keynote speech on “The Challenge of International Terrorism.” In his speech, Professor Wilkinson stated that terrorism is a special type of political violence that entails the deliberate use or threat of extreme violence to create a climate of fear. He added that it becomes truly transnational when it crosses the borders of numerous states. In summing up, Professor Wilkinson recommended, for many reasons, that it is vital to counter terrorism with the use of a holistic multipronged approach which develops much closer and more effective international cooperation.

“Other Threats” was the topic of the fourth session which featured three presentations. Dr. Viorel Mihăilă of the University of Bucharest spoke on “Strategic Communication: Winning and Reassuring Domestic Minds including Minorities.” He stressed that in the defense against terrorism, the importance of communicating the right message to the right people is paramount. Comparing what we have now for NATO information strategy, which communicates strategies for different operations rather than strategic communications on the defense against terrorism initiative as a whole, is not as effective as what could be done at the national level, communicating defense and security issues to support the fight against terrorism in order to get domestic support. Second, Professor Dragan Simeunovic of Belgrade University talked on the “Homegrown Terrorism as a Challenge for Homeland Security,” where he addressed the issue of homegrown terrorism by focusing on the process of radicalization that seems to be at the heart of homegrown terrorism. He concluded that Western policymakers must focus on the heart of the problem to counter this important and growing problem. Third to speak was Professor Mustafa Kibaroğlu of Bilkent University on the topic of “The Threat of Weapons of Mass Destruction to Homeland Security.” Professor Kibaroğlu opined that no state can stand alone against international terrorism without international cooperation, because for international terrorist groups who seek mass casualties, WMD is an attractive option and can be regarded as a ‘low probability, high consequence’ problem. NATO, along with other international organizations, has set up some initiatives to build cooperation and partnership in the control of proliferation of WMD.

The fifth and final session focused on “Countering Radicalization and the Psychology of Terrorism. First speaker was Professor Keith Spence of the University of Leicester, UK, who discussed “National, Homeland and Human Security: Conceptual Development, Globalization and Risk.” This presentation looked at the concept of homeland security in mainstream political discourse and the domestic policies of many NATO members and international partners. Uncertainties surrounding its development indicate that security itself is a concept in transition that is located and developed within the context of globalization and cosmopolitan risk. The final speaker was Jolene Jerard of the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies in Singapore, speaking on the “Ideological Rehabilitation: A Necessary Component of the Counterterrorism Strategy in Singapore.” This presentation evaluated the impact and success of the counterterrorism measures initiated by Singapore against the preeminent threat of terrorism to its homeland security. Singapore has managed to put into motion one of the most rigorous counterterrorism efforts in SEA, but much of the success achieved has the seeds in the decisive and continuous efforts undertaken by the Singapore government to mitigate the constantly changing and dynamic security environment with strategic measures to counteract these potentially devastating scenarios.

The workshop was concluded with a final discussion of all topics that are reflected in the individual papers presented herewith. Without a doubt, the workshop was a total success thanks to the extraordinary efforts of the speakers and participants. COE-DAT is honored to be able to put forth this book to further the science of counterterrorism.

J.P.I.A.G. Charvat

Major (British Army)

Workshop Director

Terrorism, as a dominating threat in today's security environment and an important agenda of current world politics, has been transforming into an instrument of state security functions through proxy wars and asymmetric threats. Thus this phenomenon is becoming a tactical choice rather than ideology or anarchic violence activities. This is thought to be the most dangerous aspect of terrorism threat, as it may provide a “beneficial” option for states’ security measures. Consequently, motivations and roots of paramilitary activity, called terrorism, should be investigated.

Unlike Eastern religions, Western ones – Judaism, Christianity and Islam – have a normative nature. Reciting the scripture does not give its member just spiritual sense but creates norms for them to be applied in their daily life. Many dos and don'ts of the scriptures are clear enough to see this normative character, but these holy texts cannot speak but their interpreters do on their behalf. And they interpret them within an interpretive context that is geohistorically, geoculturally and geopolitically rather different from one another. This is the reason why there are conflicts not just among those who believe and those who do not but among the believers of the same holy text, as well. Through ‘out of context quotations,’ some so-called devout members can easily distort the very meaning of the text, and thus transform it into a source of uproar and chaos rather than a source of peace and serenity. Considering this historical experience, this paper distinguishes between the scripture and historical phenomena it has created in order to criticize the essentialist approach that identifies the scripture with its members. Most importantly, this paper tries to show how some politically-minded people transform a spiritual and practical guide first into an ideology then into political capital. In this context the following titles will be dealt with: the Islam of identity and the Islam of truth; subordination of scripture to the politics: the position of Islamists and ‘ulam$\bar{\rm a}$ in contemporary Islam; para-mosque structures and transformation Islam into Islamism; neo-Orientalism, essentialism and contingencies about scripture and its relation to Muslim behavior; jihad and associate terms; and suicide bombings and their (un)justification.

“What did it take to produce the United States homeland security enterprise?” That is the central question discussed in this paper. I conclude that homeland security is the emergent consequence of a complex adaptive system. The paper explains how I reached that conclusion, and outlines the implications for homeland security practitioners of adopting a complexity perspective.

The United Kingdom faces a threat from international and home-grown terrorism and extremism. After the events of the Al Qa'ida attacks in America, Spain, and London, the United Kingdom drew up a strategy to counter terrorism and extremism from both home and abroad. The strategy centers around four main work streams and aims to defeat the terrorist threat while ensuring that vulnerable communities or individuals feel included in society and do not radicalize towards violent extremism.

In the fight against the scourge of terrorism, a large number of international organizations are engaged in enhancing cooperation among States. The European Union represents one of the best examples of a regional organization fostering the coordination of efforts made by its member states in a spirit of solidarity. The terrorist attacks in Madrid and London have proved that Europe is vulnerable to terrorism. Consequently, the EU has developed in recent years a common counterterrorism strategy for its member states based on four key activities: prevent, protect, pursue and respond. Specialized EU agencies have been set up (Eurojust) and others redefined (Europol) to make the exchange of intelligence and interstate judicial cooperation more effective. Legal tools such as a common European definition of terrorism and the European Arrest Warrant have been introduced to strengthen the counterterrorism cooperation in a harmonized legal framework. Also, to reduce the vulnerability to a bioterrorist attack, a strategy for preparedness and response to such a threat has been adopted. Although national security remains a responsibility of member states, there is a fundamental role for the EU to play in developing a common response, especially in the light of the new provisions of the Lisbon Treaty that seem to pave the way for a more coherent EU institutional framework and for a more efficient decision-making process.

A strong criminal justice response, supported by the core principles of international law and human rights standards, remains the crucial tool in the global efforts to fight the scourge of terrorism. Several elements of international law are directly applicable to strengthen this tool. This paper examines three: first, the obligation to prohibit and criminalize terrorist offences in domestic criminal legal orders; second, obligations aimed at strengthening prevention and repression of terrorism; and third, the framework and tools for international cooperation in prevention of terrorist acts and in prosecution and punishment of the perpetrators.

Many scholars and police officials contend that policing has changed since 9/11/01 with a greater emphasis on domestic counterterrorism and intelligence activities, often referred to as “high policing.” Some have characterized this as the new homeland security era and model of policing. The specific strategies or approaches that guide police tactics and investigations vary among nations based on their respective laws, police organization, and other factors, and the degree to which the homeland security model has actually been implemented varies with each individual agency. This article examines common or promising trends, approaches and related issues, including intelligence-led policing, adapting community-oriented policing and traditional “low policing” (i.e., patrol, criminal investigations and emergency response) to homeland security, advanced technology applications, and the militarization or privatization of policing. However, a common lament among scholars is the dearth of empirical research on many of these issues.

Terrorism is a special type of political violence that entails the deliberate use or threat of extreme violence to create a climate of fear. It is important to recognise that there are many types of terrorism. Historically the most lethal and destructive has been state or regime terror. Terrorism becomes truly transnational when it crosses the borders of numerous states. Hence, counterterrorism has to deal simultaneously with ‘traditional’ terrorist groups, the major challenge of the Al Qaeda movement and its network, and newly emerging groups. The Internet is undoubtedly now the most significant channel for Al Qaeda radicalisation and recruitment. For many reasons, a holistic multi-pronged approach which develops much closer and more effective international cooperation is vital.

Strategic communication is a rapidly evolving concept intended to foster a deeper understanding of the present day communications interactions. In the defense against terrorism, the importance of communicating the right message to the right people is paramount. From a military perspective, and now we are speaking about NATO's perspective, this is trying to be organized and shaped by employing a variety of instruments, mainly now under the umbrella of strategic communication. What we have now is a NATO information strategy, which communicates strategies (for different operations) rather than strategic communications on the defense against terrorism initiative as a whole. At the national level, the situation is not much more different that the one mentioned above. We now have a few new features such as video blogs, web-based TV channels, RSS and podcast, and even some small social media communities. At the national level, communicating defense and security issues could be the context to employ strategic communication to support the fight against terrorism in order to get domestic support.

This article addresses the issue of homegrown terrorism by addressing the term itself, the process of radicalization that seems to be at the heart of homegrown terrorism, and then looking at specific cases of homegrown terrorism. The article concludes that Western policymakers must focus on the heart of the problem to counter this important and growing problem.

As the world has become more interdependent, no state can stand alone against international terrorism without international cooperation. For international terrorist groups who seek mass casualties, WMD is an attractive option and can be regarded as a ‘low probability, high consequence’ problem. While the number of terrorist groups who would seek and use WMD is limited, those that are seeking them are intent on using them. Although all types of WMD are equally attractive to such terrorist, biological agents are the most cost effective and have many unique features that would appeal to a terrorist attacker. Intelligence on any terrorist group aspiring to WMD must be shared in a timely manner and NATO, along with other international organizations, has set up some initiatives to build cooperation and partnership in the control of proliferation of WMD.

Since the events of September 11, 2001, the concept of homeland security has achieved prominence in mainstream political discourse and institutional form in the domestic policies of many NATO members and international partners. Homeland security is assessed in this discussion as a development that is continuous with national security. Insofar as this is the case, its utility is constrained by a definition that establishes the principal site of the security – the homeland – in a bounded and limited form. This excludes and potentially marginalises identities, territories and interests that fall outside its meanings, in turn calling into question the efficacy of homeland security as a vehicle of counterterrorism and counterinsurgency, pointing to the requirement for a more comprehensive conception in keeping with the demands and complexity of an irreversibly globalized security environment. To address this lacuna, the concept of ‘human security,’ established as a practical approach within the United Nations Development Report of 1994, is outlined. Uncertainties surrounding its development indicate that security itself is a concept in transition that is located and developed within the context of globalization and cosmopolitan risk that are characteristic of the Risk Society thesis expounded by Ulrich Beck. Human security does not present itself as a simple alternative to, or replacement for, established models of physical and territorial security. In establishing an agenda for security that exceeds these conventional boundaries it does, however, enable a necessary rethinking of both conceptual limits and practical materializations of security in response to the challenges and possibilities that globalization presents. Elements of this rethinking are considered in the context of ongoing NATO operations in Afghanistan, and the relevance of human security to the reformulation of NATO's strategic concept noted.

This paper will attempt to evaluate the impact and success of the counterterrorism measures initiated by Singapore against the preeminent threat of terrorism to its homeland security. The establishment of the RRG is a step in the right direction and reflects the maturity and foresight in understanding and mitigating the threat to terrorism. Obstacles that need to be addressed however include the broad aims of the state in its attempts to address this complex threat, the difficulty in measuring success and the limitations of counterterrorism measures initiated. While some obstacles are easier to overcome, there remains an overarching sense that there are necessary limitations that any state will have to endure in the fight against a dynamic enemy – even Singapore. Singapore has managed to put into motion one of the most rigorous counterterrorism efforts in SEA, but much of the success achieved has the seeds in the decisive and continuous efforts undertaken by the Singapore government to mitigate the constantly changing and dynamic security environment with strategic measures to counteract these potentially devastating scenarios.